Resume method of teaching

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1. Grammar Translation Method

The Grammar Translation Method was developed for the study of “dead” languages and to facilitate access to those languages’ classical literature. That’s the way it should stay. English is certainly not a dead or dying language, so any teacher that takes “an approach for dead language study” into an English language classroom should perhaps think about taking up Math or Science instead. Rules, universals and memorized principles apply to those disciplines – pedagogy and communicative principles do not.

The grammar-translation method of foreign language teaching is one of the most traditional methods, dating back to the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It was originally used to teach 'dead' languages (and literatures) such as Latin and Greek.

The grammar translation method has eihgt caracteristic;
a. Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language.
b. Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.
c. Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.
d. Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words.
e. Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.
f. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis.
h. Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue.
i. Little or no attention is given to pronunciatian

2. Direct Method

The direct method of teaching, which is sometimes called the natural method, and is often (but not exclusively) used in teaching foreign languages, refrains from using the learners' native language and uses only the target language. The weakness in the Direct Method is its assumption that a second language can be learnt in exactly the same way as a first, when in fact the conditions under which a second language is learnt are very different.

In the classroom, aspects of the Direct Method are still evident in many ELT classrooms, such as the emphasis on listening and speaking, the use of the target language for all class instructions, and the use of visuals and realita to illustrate meaning.

There are principles of direct method;

Classroom instructions are conducted exclusively in the target language.
Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught during the initial phase; grammar, reading and writing are introduced in intermediate phase.
Oral communication skills are built up in a carefully graded progression organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive classes.
Grammar is taught inductively.
New teaching points are introduced orally.
Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary is taught by association of ideas.
Both speech and listening comprehensions are taught.
Correct pronunciation and grammar are emphasized.
Student should be speaking approximately 80% of the time during the lesson.
Students are taught from inception to ask questions as well as answer them.

3. Audiolingual Method and Drill method

The audio-lingual method is a style of teaching used in teaching foreign languages. It is based on behaviorist theory, which professes that certain traits of living things, and in this case humans, could be trained through a system of reinforcement—correct use of a trait would receive positive feedback while incorrect use of that trait would receive negative feedback.

This approach to language learning was similar to another, earlier method called the direct method. Like the direct method, the audio-lingual method advised that students be taught a language directly, without using the students' native language to explain new words or grammar in the target language. However, unlike the direct method, the audio-lingual method didn’t focus on teaching vocabulary. Rather, the teacher drilled students in the use of grammar. These patterns are elicited, repeated and tested until the responses given by the student in the foreign language are automatic.

Some characteristics of this method are:

Drills are used to teach structural patterns
Set phrases are memorised with a focus on intonation
Grammatical explanations are kept to a minimum
Vocabulary is taught in context
Audio-visual aids are used
Focus is on pronunciation
Correct responses are positively reinforced immediately

Drill method

A drill is a classroom technique used to practise new language. It involves the teacher modelling a word or a sentence and the learners repeating it. There are different kinds of drilling, such as choral drill, which involves the whole class, and substitution drill, where the teacher changes the cue words after each repetition.

In the classroom, drilling is a classroom technique which some teachers reject due to a possible lack of communicative quality and its highly controlled, teacher-centred nature. However, there are advantages to it also, such as offering learners an opportunity to practise pronunciation in a non-threatening dynamic.

The Advantage of Drills

While drills are associated with a regimented style of instruction, they do have a place. Drills are used successfully when teaching students technique. For instance, when young people are learning their multiplication tables, they can do drills on each number set to help them memorize; they can then proceed to more difficult concepts that use the information obtained from drills. In physical education and music, coaches and teachers use drills as a method to hone skills that need repetition for improvement. Additionally, students can use this technique with one another for shared learning opportunities.

Drilling is a form of pattern practice which involves the repetition by learners of teacher models of restricted amounts of oral language input. In a repetition drill, they simply repeat the teacher's words, for example lines of a dialogue.

4. Nurul Fajri (Dissugestopedia)

Suggestopedia is a teaching method developed by the Bulgarian psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov. It is used in different fields, but mostly in the field of foreign language learning. Lozanov has claimed that by using this method a teacher's students can learn a language approximately three to five times as quickly as through conventional teaching methods. Suggestopedia is a teaching method, which focuses on how to deal with the relationship between mental potential and learning ability and it is very appropriate to use in teaching speaking for young language learners

Teachers should not act in a directive way, although this method is teacher-controlled and not student-controlled. For example, they should act as a real partner to the students, participating in the activities such as games and songs “naturally” and “genuinely.” In the concert session, they should fully include classical art in their behaviors. Although there are many techniques that the teachers use, factors such as “communication in the spirit of love, respect for man as a human being, the specific humanitarian way of applying their ‘techniques’” etc. are crucial. The teachers not only need to know the techniques and to acquire the practical methodology completely, but also to fully understand the theory, because, if they implement those techniques without complete understanding, they will not be able lead their learners to successful results, or they could even cause a negative impact on their learning. Therefore, the teacher has to be trained in a course taught by certified trainers.

Here are the most important factors for teachers to acquire, described by Lozanov.

Covering a huge bulk of learning material.
Structuring the material in the suggestopaedic way: global-partial – partial-global, and global in the part – part in the global, related to the golden proportion.
As a professional, on one hand, and a personality, on the other hand, the teacher should be a highly-regarded professional, reliable and credible.
The teacher should have, not play, a hundred percent expectation of positive results (because the teacher is already experienced even from the time of the teacher training course).
The teacher should love his/her students (of course, not sentimentally but as human beings) and teach them with personal participation through games, songs, classical arts, and pleasure.

4. Suggestopedia

Suggestopedia is a teaching method, which focuses on how to deal with the relationship between mental potential and learning ability and it is very appropriate to use in teaching speaking for young language learners (Xue, 2005).

Key Features of Suggestopedia:

· Comfortable environment

· The use of music

· Peripheral Learning

· Free Errors

· Homework is limited

· Music, drama and art are integrated in the learning process

Teacher’s Roles

Teacher should create situations in which learners are most suggestible and then to present linguistic material in a way most likely to encourage positive reception and retention by learners. Lozanov lists several expected teacher behaviors as follows:

Show absolute confidence in the method.
Display fastidious conduct in manners and dress.
Organize properly, and strictly observe the initial stages of the teaching process—this includes choice and play of music, as well as punctuality.
Maintain a solemn attitude towards the session.
Give tests and respond tactfully to poor papers (if any).
Stress global rather than analytical attitudes towards material.
Maintain a modest enthusiasm.

Learners’ Roles

The learners as well are should have “faith in the system and accept that they are in a childlike situation where they follow the teacher / parent” (Knight, 2001, p. 154). The students should not be critical, but simply absorb what is presented to them.

5. Silent Way

The Silent Way is a language-teaching method that makes extensive use of silence as a teaching technique. It is not usually considered a mainstream method in language education. The method emphasises the autonomy of the learner; the teacher's role is to monitor the students' efforts, and the students are encouraged to have an active role in learning the language. Pronunciation is seen as fundamental; beginning students start their study with pronunciation, and much time is spent practising it each lesson. The Silent Way uses a structural syllabus, and structures are constantly reviewed and recycled. The choice of vocabulary is important, with functional and versatile words seen as the best. Translation and rote repetition are avoided and the language is usually practiced in meaningful contexts. Evaluation is carried out by observation, and the teacher may never set a formal test.

The teacher uses silence for multiple purposes in the Silent Way. It is used to focus students' attention, to elicit student responses, and to encourage them to correct their own errors. Even though teachers are often silent, they are still active; they will commonly use techniques such as mouthing words and using hand gestures to help the students with their pronunciation. Teachers will also encourage students to help their peers.

Silent Way teachers use specialized teaching materials. One of the hallmarks of the method is the use of Cuisenaire rods, which can be used for anything from introducing simple commands to representing abstract objects such as clocks and floor plans. The method also makes use of color association to help teach pronunciation; there is a sound-color chart which is used to teach the language sounds, colored word charts which are used to teach sentences, and colored Fidel charts which are used to teach spelling.

These principles situate the Silent Way in the tradition of discovery learning, that sees learning as a creative problem-solving activity.

Broadly, these principles are:

Teachers should concentrate on how students learn, not on how to teach
Imitation and drill are not the primary means by which students learn
Learning consists of trial and error, deliberate experimentation, suspending judgement, and revising conclusions
In learning, learners draw on everything that they already know, especially their native language
The teacher must not interfere with the learning process

6. Total Physical response {TPR} and Simulation Method

Total Physical Response (TPR) is a language teaching method built around the coordination of speech and action; it attempts to teach language through physical (motor) activity.

Total Physical Response is linked to the "trace theory " of memory in psychology, which holds that the more often or the more intensively a memory connection is traced, the stronger the memory association will be and the more likely it will be recalled. Retracing can be done verbally (e.g., by rote repetition) and/or in association with motor activity. Combined tracing activities, such as verbal rehearsal accompanied by motor activity, hence increase the probability of successful recall.

The emphasis on comprehension and the use of physical actions to teach a foreign language at an introductory level has a long tradition in language teaching. TPR practices therefore may be effective for reasons other than those proposed by Asher and do not necessarily demand commitment to the learning theories used to justify them.

The principles of Total physical response is an example of the comprehension approach to language teaching. Methods in the comprehension approach emphasize the importance of listening on language development, and do not require spoken output in the early stages of learning. In total physical response, students are not forced to speak. Instead, teachers wait until students acquire enough language through listening that they start to speak spontaneously. At the beginning stages of instruction students can respond to the instructor in their native language.

Lessons in TPR are organized around grammar, and in particular around the verb. Instructors issue commands based on the verbs and vocabulary to be learned in that lesson. However, the primary focus in lessons is on meaning, which distinguishes TPR from other grammar-based methods such as grammar-translation.

Total physical response is both a teaching technique and a philosophy of language teaching. Teachers do not have to limit themselves to TPR techniques to teach according to the principles of the total physical response method. Because the students are only expected to listen and not to speak, the teacher has the sole responsibility for deciding what input students hear.

7. Natural Approach and Story Telling

The Natural Approach belongs to a tradition of language teaching methods based on observation and interpretation of how learners acquire both first and second languages in non-formal settings. Such methods reject the formal (grammatical) organization of language as a prerequisite to teaching. They hold with Newmark and Reibel that "an adult can effectively be taught by grammatically unordered materials" and that such an approach is, indeed, "the only learning process which we know for certain will produce mastery of the language at a native level". In the Natural Approach, a focus on comprehension and meaningful communication as well as the provision of the right kinds of comprehensible input provide the necessary and sufficient conditions for successful classroom second and foreign language acquisition. This has led to a new rationale for the integration and adaptation of techniques drawn from a wide variety of existing sources. Like Communicative Language Teaching, the Natural Approach is hence evolutionary rather than revolutionary in its procedures. Its greatest claim to originality lies not in the techniques it employs but in their use in a method that emphasizes and meaningful practice activities, rather than production of grammatically perfect utterances and sentences.

The Characteristics natural approach is one of the, "language teaching methods based on observation and interpretation of how learners acquire both first and second languages in nonformal settings. The approach focuses on input, comprehension, and meaningful communication and puts less emphasis on grammar, teacher monologues, direct repetition and accuracy.

Within a natural approach, emphasis is placed on comprehensible input, meaningful communication and a relaxed classroom atmosphere. "To minimize stress, learners are not required to say anything until they feel ready, but they are expected to respond to teacher commands and questions." (Richards & Rodgers 2001: 185) There is a gradual progression from "Yes/No" and simple display questions, to more complex and open questions.

Materials used in a natural approach classroom aim at making activities and tasks as meaningful as possible -- they foster comprehension and communication. Authentic materials, like brochures or maps, as well as visual aids and games are used to facilitate acquisition and to promote comprehension and real communication.

Story Telling

Storytelling is the sharing of stories and events through words, sounds and visual images. An effective storyteller captures the attention of listeners and accomplishes the goal of telling the story, which may be to entertain, convey information, teach an important life lesson, or persuade listeners to take action of some kind. Storytelling techniques may incorporate a combination of tone usage, animated sounds and gestures, and digital tools. Here are strategies for teaching storytelling.

Learn effective storytelling techniques. Teach others the art of telling stories by first becoming an engaging storyteller.

Take a storytelling class. Sign up for a storytelling workshop at a college or community center.
Practice telling stories. Strengthen your storytelling skills by taking the opportunity to tell relevant stories whenever possible to your colleagues, students, friends, relatives and neighbors.

The benefit learn story telling are

Notice the reactions of others to your stories.

Improve your storytelling skills.

Determine if you are ready to teach storytelling to others.

Identify the age group of your storytelling class.

Assess the needs of the specific age group and plan accordingly.

Teach storytelling techniques.

Give feedback to students

8. CLT n role playing

Communicative language teaching makes use of real-life situations that necessitate communication. The teacher sets up a situation that students are likely to encounter in real life. Unlike the audiolingual method of language teaching, which relies on repetition and drills, the communicative approach can leave students in suspense as to the outcome of a class exercise, which will vary according to their reactions and responses. The real-life simulations change from day to day. Students' motivation to learn comes from their desire to communicate in meaningful ways about meaningful topics.

As a teacher trainer working with international groups, I am frequently asked to include an overview of communicative language teaching (CLT), and discuss ways of adapting materials to make lessons more communicative or interactive.

Most groups are enthusiastic about the lesson opportunities which CLT offers. However, some also indicated they felt constrained by the system under which they operated, especially those teaching in settings which are particularly exam-focused. In addition, they queried the relevance of CLT to their situation, where many of the students never used English outside the classroom. In contrast, I had shifted across a spectrum of learners, enthusiastically taking CLT along with me as universally appropriate.

In a communicative classroom for beginners, the teacher might begin by passing out cards, each with a different name printed on it. The teacher then proceeds to model an exchange of introductions in the target language: "Guten Tag. Wie heissen Sie?" Reply: "Ich heisse Wolfie," for example. Using a combination of the target language and gestures, the teacher conveys the task at hand, and gets the students to introduce themselves and ask their classmates for information. They are responding in German to a question in German. They do not know the answers beforehand, as they are each holding cards with their new identities written on them; hence, there is an authentic exchange of information.

Instructions to students: Listen to a conversation somewhere in a public place and be prepared to answer, in the target language, some general questions about what was said.

Who was talking?
About how old were they?
Where were they when you eavesdropped?
What were they talking about?
What did they say?
Did they become aware that you were listening to them?

The exercise puts students in a real-world listening situation where they must report information overheard. Most likely they have an opinion of the topic, and a class discussion could follow, in the target language, about their experiences and viewpoints.

Communicative exercises such as this motivate the students by treating topics of their choice, at an appropriately challenging level.

Another exercise taken from the same source is for beginning students of Spanish. In "Listening for the Gist," students are placed in an everyday situation where they must listen to an authentic text.

ROLE PLAYING

Role-playing refers to the changing of one's behaviour to assume a role, either unconsciously to fill a social role, or consciously to act out an adopted role. While the Oxford English Dictionary offers a definition of role-playing as "the changing of one's behaviour to fulfill a social role", in the field of psychology, the term is used more loosely in four senses:

To refer to the playing of roles generally such as in a theatre, or educational setting;
To refer to taking a role of an existing character or person and acting it out with a partner taking someone else's role, often involving different genres of practice;
To refer to a wide range of games including role-playing video game, play-by-mail games and more;
To refer specifically to role-playing games.

9. Contextual Teaching and Learning

Contextual Learning is based on a constructivist theory of teaching and learning.Learning takes place when teachers are able to present information in a way that students are able to construct meaning based on their own experiences. Contextual learning experiences include internships, service learning, and study abroad pro grams, among others.

Contextual learning has the following characteristics:

emphasizing problem solving
recognizing that teaching and learning need to occur in multiple contextsassisting students in learning how to monitor their learning and thereby become self-regulated learners
anchoring teaching in the diverse life context of students
encouraging students to learn from each other employing authentic assessment

Benefits of contextual learning

Both direct instruction and constructivist activities can be compatible and effective in the achievement of learning goals.
Increasing one’s efforts results in more ability.Children learn the standards values, and knowledge of society by raising questions and accepting challenges to find solutions that are not immediately apparent.
Knowledge and learning are situated in particular physical and social context. A range of settings may be used such as the home, the community, and the workplace, depending on the purpose of instruction and the intended learning goals.
Knowledge may be viewed as distributed or stretched overthe individual, other persons, and various artifacts such as physical and symbolic toolsand not solely as a property of individuals. Thus, people, as an integral part of the learning process, must share knowledge and tasks.

10. The portfolios and coursebook

A portfolio is a collection of information and evidence about achievements, which should prove acquired competencies. The person in question collects the relevant information and is asked to reflect upon the own methodology and achievements. This reflection is an intrinsic part of the process and lies at the basis of the assessment.

An evaluation of competencies on the basis of a portfolio is usually done in dialogue with the relevant person. The reliability of the competencies assessment depends as much on the quality of the portfolio as on the skills of the assessor in terms of handling the techniques used in the competency oriented interview.

The concept has been used for a long time by models, designers, graphic artists, architects and artists. In all those cases, a portfolio is a large folder containing photos, completed projects, news clippings and references about completed projects. The portfolio is used by them to convince their prospect clients of their competencies.

In a more formal context of competency assessment, the portfolio is used primarily in education. A portfolio may consists of a CV, certificates and attestations, testimonial about work experience (official work, voluntary work, home work), a report on the motivation, self-assessment about the relevant competencies, possibly video content, provable results etc.

11. Whole Language

In the simplest terms, the “whole language approach” is a method of teaching children to read by recognizing words as whole pieces of language. Proponents of the whole language philosophy believe that language should not be broken down into letters and combinations of letters and “decoded.” Instead, they believe that language is a complete system of making meaning, with words functioning in relation to each other in context.

Whole language teachers believe that children learn to read by writing, and vice versa. They encourage children to read and write for “real purposes,” with nonfiction texts and interpretation of what they read forming much of the basis of their assignments. The whole language approach to reading also stresses the love of literature and the use of engaging texts to help children develop that love. Teachers who use this approach exclusively do not place heavy emphasis in the early grades on spelling and grammar, which can make some parents uncomfortable. The whole language philosophy emphasizes children’s efforts to make meaning and seek meaning in language; therefore, correcting errors places the focus on technical correctness, which is not where whole language teachers believe it should be. The effective whole language teacher “hears and sees through” the child’s errors, using the information gained for formative assessment, then creates experiences that help the child to acquire the correct structure and form.

12. Multiple Intelligent

Multiple Intelligences is an approach to teaching that focuses on his belief the learners' intelligence is not a single structure like IQ but a conglomerate of different types of "intelligences". Gardner’s multiple intelligences extents the concept of the one intelligence and defines a broader variety of intelligences for everyone. This takes into account the idea that a person who is good at mathematics is not necessarily good at other tasks. Furthermore it questions the concept that a person with low mathematical skills is considered to be less intelligent even though he or she might be a high achiever in other areas like music, sports, etc.

Teachers become curriculum developers, lesson designers and analysts, activity finders or inventors, and, most critically, orchestrators of a rich array of multisensory activities within the realistic constraints of time, space, and resources of the classroom.

Students are active learners; they use their particular intelligences to gain knowledge, or experiment with each until they find to appropriate ones for them.

13. Neuro-Linguistic Programming

NLP (Neuro Linguistic Programming) has been around in language teaching longer than we may realise. Those teachers who incorporate elements of suggestopedia, community language learning, music, drama and body language into their lessons are already drawing on NLP as it stood twenty years ago.

Teachers using music to create atmosphere and stimulate creativity, or using mime and drama techniques to build confidence and add body language to speech acts are already drawing from the NLP repertoire. Only recently, however, have classroom activities specifically and overtly based on NLP been developed by ELT practitioners.

Many of these activities also integrate the skills and are extensions or modifications of existing techniques such as storytelling, guided fantasy, role-play and simulation. Areas where NLP can have a real impact, however, are those which explore the relationships between students and between students and teacher, and those which help to create a healthy and positive learning environment:
* Creating rapport
Rapport is the sense of ease that develops when people are interacting with others they feel comfortable with, and is essential for meaningful communication to take place. Rapport is most likely when like-minded people interact. In the classroom, mingle and 'getting to know you' activities, as well as continuous negotiation between teacher and students foster rapport, while communication gap activities and group work reinforce it.
*Mirroring

One way of establishing good rapport is to mirror the behaviour of those we wish to influence or to be influenced by. Mirroring of posture, gestures, facial expressions and even breathing can easily be practised in the classroom, while simple drilling achieves the same results with phonological features of connected speech and key lexical phrases. To achieve natural communication, verbal and non-verbal aspects need to be combined in communicative activities. Learners may be asked to mirror the behaviour of characters on television before mirroring each other and the teacher.
*Creating positive states and anchoring

This is about motivation and maintaining positive attitudes to learning. In NLP, a positive state is created through a mental image formed by the process of achieving something mentally or physically, and this state is anchored by a gesture, expression or body movement which is repeated to maintain or recall the state. Guided fantasy may be used to create the state, and a movement or sound selected to represent it. Some teachers, often subconsciously, opt for different positions in the classroom to carry out certain actions, such as give instructions, teach grammar or tell a story. In ELT this is a type of anchoring by which students automatically know what is going to happen next in a lesson, and are prepared for it.
*Maintaining flow

NLP fits in nicely with 'Flow Theory', the notion that learning flows like water and that the best learning takes place when uninterrupted. For the purposes of lesson planning, flow is achieved when there is a balance of skills development and new challenges, clear task goals and the need for concentration. Successful learning takes place when learners feel a sense of control over what is happening in the classroom, do not feel self-conscious, and receive positive feedback from each other and the teacher. In good lessons, time seems to pass quickly. There are clear messages here about balance of activities, interest, attitude to errors, confidence building, learner training and autonomy. Competitive and collaborative games, jokes, songs and anecdotes, personalisation and well-structured information gap activities all help to maintain flow.
* Pacing and leading

A set of strategies requiring the listener to 'tune in', accept and correctly state the speaker's point of view (pacing) before suggesting an alternative point of view (leading). Acceptance of an argument will be accompanied by the listener's mirroring of the speaker's behaviour. Activities involving listening without response, turn-taking, planning and decision-making are useful for raising awareness of this process.

· Perceptual positioning

This is an extension of mirroring used in NLP for resolving conflicts and involving a neutral third party as a mediator in disputes. An ELT application here would be in a reading or storytelling lesson, where one position is taken by the writer / teller, another by a character in the story, and a third by a reader or neutral observer of events.
* Modelling good practice

NLP asks us to mirror what others do well. In ELT, much of this is about learner training, particularly when learners discover each other's strategies or adopt new study skills, for revision and examination preparation for example.

14. Competency Based Language Teaching (CBLT)

CBLT focuses on what “learners are expected to do with the language” . This approachcan be described as “defining educational goals in terms of precise measurable descriptions of the knowledge, skills, and behaviors students should possess at the end of a course of study”. The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines competency as “the ability to do sth well” and as “a skill that you need in a particular job or for a particular task”.

According to Auerbach there are eight key features which are essential for Competency-Based Language Teaching:

A focus on successful functioning in society which means that language is taught in order to prepare the students for the different demands of the worldA focus on life skills to determine that language is always taught as a medium of communication in concrete tasks in which specific language forms/skills are required.
Task- or performance-centered orientation. The focus is on what the students can do with the language and certain behaviors instead of knowledge of the languag.
Modularized instruction emphasizes that the competencies which are taught have to be systematically separated into manageable parts so that both the teacher and students can handle the content and realize their progress
Outcomes that are made explicit a priori. “Outcomes are public knowledge, known and agreed upon by both learner and teacher”. Therefore, the students clearly know what behaviors and skills are expected of them
Continuous and ongoing assessment which means that the students are tested before the course to determine which skills they lack and after they have had instructions in that skill they are tested again to ascertain whether they have achieved the necessary skills or not
Demonstrated mastery of performance objectives.
The assessment is based on the students’ performance of specific behaviors instead of traditional paper-and-pencil-testIndividualized, student-centered instruction.

15. Cooperative Learning

Cooperative Language Learning is founded on some basic premises about the interactive cooperative nature of language and language learning builds on these premise in several ways.

· Formal Cooperative Learning is structured, facilitated, and monitored by the educator over time and is used to achieve group goals in task work (e.g. completing a unit).

· Informal Cooperative Learning incorporates group learning with passive teaching by drawing attention to material through small groups throughout the lesson or by discussion at the end of a lesson, and typically involves groups of two (e.g. turn-to-your-partner discussions).

· Base Group Learning (e.g., a long term study group) is effective for learning complex subject matter over the course or semester and establishes caring, supportive peer relationships, which in turn motivates and strengthens the student’s commitment to the group’s education while increasing self-esteem and self-worth

14. Content Based Instruction

The focus of a CBI lesson is on the topic or subject matter. During the lesson students are focused on learning about something. This could be anything that interests them from a serious science subject to their favourite pop star or even a topical news story or film. They learn about this subject using the language they are trying to learn, rather than their native language, as a tool for developing knowledge and so they develop their linguistic ability in the target language. This is thought to be a more natural way of developing language ability and one that corresponds more to the way we originally learn our first language.

There are many ways to approach creating a CBI lesson. This is one possible way:

Preparationa. Choose a subject of interest to students.
b. Find three or four suitable sources that deal with different aspects of the subject. These could be websites, reference books, audio or video of lectures or even real people.
During the lessona. Divide the class into small groups and assign each group a small research task and a source of information to use to help them fulfil the task.
b. Then once they have done their research they form new groups with students that used other information sources and share and compare their information.
c. There should then be some product as the end result of this sharing of information which could take the form of a group report or presentation of some kind.

What are the advantages of content-based instruction?
a. It can make learning a language more interesting and motivating. Students can use the language to fulfil a real purpose, which can make students both more independent and confident.
b. Students can also develop a much wider knowledge of the world through CBI which can feed back into improving and supporting their general educational needs.
c. CBI is very popular among EAP (English for Academic Purposes) teachers as it helps students to develop valuable study skills such as note taking, summarising and extracting key information from texts.
d. Taking information from different sources, re-evaluating and restructuring that information can help students to develop very valuable thinking skills that can then be transferred to other subjects.
d. The inclusion of a group work element within the framework given above can also help students to develop their collaborative skills, which can have great social value.

16. Task Based Learning

Task-based learning focuses on the use of authentic language through meaningful tasks such as visiting the doctor or a telephone call. This method encourages meaningful communication and is student-centred.

Characteristics:

Students are encouraged to use language creatively and spontaneously through tasks and problem solving
Students focus on a relationship that is comparable to real world activities
The conveyance of some sort of meaning is central to this method
Assessment is primarily based on task outcome
TBL is student-centered

17.Situational Language Teaching

According to the Situational Approach, and to insure that the language that is being taught is realistic, all the words and sentences must grow out of some real situation or imagined real situation. The aspects of Situational Language Teaching:
a. Focus on vocabulary and reading is one of the most salient traits of SLT.
b. An analysis of English and a classification of its prominent grammatical structures into sentence patterns, also called situational tables, is believed to help learners internalize grammatical rules.

The advantages of SLT are;
a. Suitable for introduction to the language
b. Values practical grammar and vocabulary
c. An accessible method for teachers if they have good curriculum
d. Inexpensive to use

The disadvantagesof SLT are;

·         a. Teacher-controlled
       b. Ineffective
       c. Boring

18. Participatory Approach

Participatory approach is a teaching strategy that incorporates themes or content area that are of interest to the learner. Participatory approach is a research method where the researcher or observer attends group events and is directly involved in the subject of the event and they also record the observations. Participatory approach attempts to be an interactive practice, instead of a one-off exercise for getting information from people.

The goal of participatoty approach Is to help student to understand thesocial, historical or cultural forces thataffect their lives, and then to helpempower students to take action andmake decision in order to gain controlover their lives.

Advantages of participatory approach :
• Participation carries with it feelings ofownership, and builds a strong base for theintervention in the community
• It can bring together and establish ties amongcommunity members who might normally haveno contact
• A participatory planning process builds trust
• A participatory planning process generallyreflects the mission and goals of grass roots andcommunity-based organizations

Disadvantages of participatory approach :
• A participatory process takes longer• Members of the target population or the community may not agree with the"experts about what is needed”
• It may be difficult to assure that all theright people get to the table.
• A participatory planning process takespatience and commitment on everyones part.

19. Lexical Approach

The lexical approach is a way of analysing and teaching language based on the idea that it is made up of lexical units rather than grammatical structures. The units are words, chunks formed by collocations, and fixed phrases.

Example:
The phrase 'Rescue attempts are being hampered by bad weather' is a chunk of language, and almost a fixed phrase. It is formed by the collocations 'Rescue' + 'attempt', 'rescue attempt' + 'hampered', 'hampered' + 'by', 'hampered by' + 'bad weather'.

A simple activity to incorporate the lexical approach is to encourage learners to identify and record lexical chunks and fixed phrases in texts they read.

20. learning Strategy Training, small and Large group

Learning strategy is the specific actions to make the students better in learning a second language.It suggests that teachers should elicit the problems of the students and try to develop a solution for them. Learning Strategy Training is based on problems students encounter in the process of learning target language. These problems are needed to be solved for aneffective learning.

Learning Strategy Training focuses on learner training as much as language teaching. Students should be responsible for their own learning. They should follow their learning process and be aware of their deficient and efficent sides. They should also monitor theirselves and identify what they need. The teacher helps them to facilitate their learning and to be more effective in learning the target language. After the students get some learning strategies, they have a cognition about them.

Principles of Learning Strategy Trainingare:
a. The students’ prior knowledge and learning experiences should be valued and built upon
b. Studying certain learning strategies will contribute to academic success
c. The teacher’s job is not only to teach language, but to teach learning
d. For many students, strategies have to be learned. The best way to do this is with ‘hands-on’ experience
f. Students need to become independent, self-regulated learners. Self-assessment contributes to learner autonomy
g. An important part of learning a strategy is being able to transfer it, i.e. use it in a different situation

21. Project Based Learning

Project Based Learning is a teaching method in which students gain knowledge and skills by working for an extended period of time to investigate and respond to a complex question, problem, or challenge. Essential Elements of PBL include:

Significant Content - At its core, the project is focused on teaching students important knowledge and skills, derived from standards and key concepts at the heart of academic subjects.
21st century competencies - Students build competencies valuable for today’s world, such as problem solving, critical thinking, collaboration, communication, and creativity/innovation, which are explicitly taught and assessed.
In-Depth Inquiry - Students are engaged in an extended, rigorous process of asking questions, using resources, and developing answers.
Driving Question - Project work is focused by an open-ended question that students understand and find intriguing, which captures their task or frames their exploration.
Need to Know - Students see the need to gain knowledge, understand concepts, and apply skills in order to answer the Driving Question and create project products, beginning with an Entry Event that generates interest and curiosity.
Voice and Choice - Students are allowed to make some choices about the products to be created, how they work, and how they use their time, guided by the teacher and depending on age level and PBL experience.
Critique and Revision - The project includes processes for students to give and receive feedback on the quality of their work, leading them to make revisions or conduct further inquiry.
Public Audience - Students present their work to other people, beyond their classmates and teacher.

22. Collaborative Learning

Collaborative learning is a method of teaching and learning in which students team together to explore a significant question or create a meaningful project. The main characteristics of collaborative learning are: a common task or activity; small group learning, co-operative behaviour; interdependence; and individual responsibility and accountability (Lejeune, 1999).

Collaborative learning is similar to, but not the same as, cooperative learning. In cooperative learning the task is divided vertically (i.e., members work more or less concurrently on different aspects of a project), whereas in collaborative learning the task is divided horizontally (i.e., members work together more or less sequentially on different aspects of a project) (Dillenbourg, 1999).

Benefits of collaborative learning

Collaborative learning activities create opportunities for students to:

· Engage in subject specific discussions with peers

· Learn how to work cooperatively and support each other

· Develop effective teamwork and communication (including interpersonal and cross cultural awareness) skills

· Assimilate multiple views to deepen knowledge and promote critical thinking

· Foster individual accountability to the team

· Develop independent learning strategies

· Structure out-of-class learning

· Mitigate learner isolation

23. Blended Learning

Blended learning is the combination of different training "media": technologies, activities, and types of events to create an optimum training program for a specific audience. Blended learning programs use many different forms of e-learning, perhaps complemented with instructor-led training and other live formats.

Five Specific Blended Learning Models
a. E-learning bself-study blended with other media or event
b. Instructor-led program blended with self-study e-learning
c. Live e-learning centered with other media
d. On-the-job training centered
e. Simulation and lab centered

Characteristics of blended learning
a. The combination of the leaarning model
b. The combination of learning methods
c. The combination of online learning with face to face learning

24. Classroom Management and Group Dynamic

Classroom management is the orchestration of the learning environment of a group of individuals within a classroom setting. In the early 1970s classroom management was seen as separate from classroom instruction. Teachers' management decisions were viewed as precursors to instruction, and were treated in the literature as if they were content-free. The image was of a teacher first attending to classroom management, and then beginning instruction without further reference to management decisions. Research in the 1980s, however, demonstrated that management and instruction are not separate, but are inextricably interwoven and complex.

A teacher's classroom-management system communicates information about the teacher's beliefs on content and the learning process. It also circumscribes the kinds of instruction that will take place in a particular classroom. A classroom in which the teacher takes complete responsibility for guiding students' actions constitutes a different learning environment than one in which students are encouraged and taught to assume responsibility for their own behaviors. Content will be approached and understood differently in each of these settings. Furthermore, more intellectually demanding academic work and activities in which students create products or encounter novel problems require complex management decisions.